The pancreas is composed of several types of cells that have distinct functions involved in the production of hormones and digestive enzymes. The exocrine pancreas produces enzymes that are essential for the digestion of complex dietary components such as proteins, triglycerides, and complex carbohydrates. The exocrine pancreas also secretes large amounts of bicarbonate, which buffers stomach acid. Disorders of the
The adrenal glands are located just in front of the kidneys. The adrenal gland has 2 parts—the cortex and the medulla.
The adrenal cortex is subdivided into 3 layers, and each layer produces a different set of steroid hormones. The outer layer produces the mineralocorticoids, which help to control the body’s balance of sodium and potassium salts. The middle layer produces glucocorticoids, which are involved in met
Hormones are chemical messengers that have many different functions. The effects of hormones in the body are wide-ranging and varied. Some familiar examples of hormones include insulin, which is important in the development of diabetes, and estrogen and progesterone, which are involved in the female reproductive cycle (see Table: Major Hormones below)).
Table
Major Hormones
A thrombus is a blood clot that may form when the blood flow of an artery or vein is restricted, when the lining of a blood vessel is damaged, or when another condition causes a cat to produce clots excessively. It can cause a partial or full obstruction to blood vessels at its site of origin. Blood clots can also form in the heart, especially in cats with enlargement of the left atrium. All or part of a clot may break off and be carried through t
Heartworm disease is a potentially fatal, but preventable, infection caused by a worm parasite, Dirofilaria immitis. The organism is transmitted by mosquitoes, which carry the heartworm larvae (called microfilariae) from an infected animal host to a new animal host. Once the larvae arrive in a new host, they grow into adult worms in several months and live in the blood vessels leading from the heart to the lungs. In advanced infection
Cats can develop many different cardiovascular diseases. The ones discussed below are the most common.
Degenerative Valve Disease
This acquired disease is characterized by a thickening of the heart valves. Degenerative valves do not close properly and allow blood to flow backwards through the heart. The mitral valve is most commonly affected. This allows blood to return from the
Heart failure is not a specific disease or diagnosis. It is a syndrome in which severe dysfunction results in failure of the cardiovascular system to maintain adequate blood circulation. There are limited and specific mechanisms by which heart disease can bring on failure of the cardiovascular system. Therefore, there are limited and specific signs that can develop as a result of heart failure.
Types of Heart Failure
Congenital abnormalities of the cardiovascular system are defects that are present at birth. They can occur as a result of genetic defects, environmental conditions, infections, poisoning, medication taken by the mother, or poor maternal nutrition. In some cases, it is a combination of these factors that causes the defect. For several defects, an inherited basis is suspected.
In cats, the frequency of congenital heart disease has been estimated t
Treatment of cardiovascular disease should be specific for the type of disease. Some defects can be repaired or corrected with surgery, while other conditions can be managed with medical therapy using one or a combination of drugs. In general, the goals of treatment are to minimize damage to the heart muscle, control the accumulation of fluids in and around the lungs, improve circulation, regulate the heart rate and rhythm, ensure that there is enough oxygen in the blood, and min
A veterinarian often diagnoses cardiovascular disease by reviewing the medical history and signs, conducting a physical examination, and interpreting the results of specific tests or imaging procedures. The physical examination includes using a stethoscope to listen to the heart and lungs. A veterinarian may hear an abnormal heart rate (for example, a rate that is too slow, fast, or irregular), an abnormal breathing rate (fast or labored breathing), additional heart sounds (calle